1. In 1657 the Dutch government gave Jewish traders the same diplomatic protection that the other Dutch citizens received which was a huge step forward for the Jews. The Jews then built a synagogue in Amsterdam that was then considered to be the biggest house of prayer, for any religion, in all of Europe. Regardless of the Jews’ success among newfound gold and silver as well as their newly structured synagogue, not all Europeans respected the Jews and what they could offer the local society and/or economy. The more threatening the Jews seemed, the more cautious Europeans were to do business with them. In fact, it was forbidden to trade with the Dutch in all of London. However, the Jews were able to prosper in France because of the King’s respect for their honesty and work ethic. The King of France was one of the few European leaders that saw the economic potential in the Jewish people. Some new jobs that Jews had begun taking on were distributing silk and satin as well as money lending and banking. Without the restraint of Poll taxes or living situations of ghettos, Jewish businesses were able to communicate and trade with other businesses outside of the Jewish community, a great improvement from past years. Court Jews emerged as wartime workers and were able to create clothing for the army. They also sought out gunpowder, grain, and fodder for the war surplus. Their efforts in the war earned many Jews titles such as Hoffaktor and Hofagent, which allowed them certain privileges and provided them with connections to European nobles and royalty.
2. One change was the arrival of “Court Jews” who were becoming fairly wealthy and had made powerful connections. These “Court Jews” were given special privileges, more so than the average Jewish worker had. However, they did not forget about the “average Jew,” they were middlemen who acted as the voice between the common Jews and European Royalty. Although the Jews’ previous self-governed neighborhoods, or ghettos, were starting to break up as more Jews integrated themselves into European society, countries began to take away the Jew's central, self-government, they began to be integrated into society, they were somewhat liberated from a closed universe of only what they knew and placed in a larger community. The Jews faced less and less anti-Semitism every day. It was because of their involvement in basic society, which also rubbed off on them as they picked up modern, non-religious, customs.
3. John Toland argued for the naturalization of the Jews in Great Britain and Ireland by saying that the Jews would add on to an increasing number of workers that were needed in defending their countries. He stated that Jews were very intelligent and would be the “brains” of several operations to take place in the future. Toland later says that Jews were a very driven and useful group of people, maybe more so than other groups, and that there work ethic was incredibly efficient.
Thursday, September 25, 2008
Monday, September 15, 2008
Sachar/Katz Comparison
Early Jewish life in Europe can be explained as bittersweet. There is a great history of the Ashkenazi Jews of Europe going through ups and downs as they settled in Germany and moved throughout the land, with a significant settlement in Poland. In the Sachar reading, he explains how the Jews were originally placed into ghettos. First settling in Jewish ghettos by choice in order to have their own, smaller economy and community. Then later being forced into ghettos with fewer rights by the governments of West-Central Europe. Sachar explains one of the prominent forms of anti-Semitism of the time was that the Jews had much success in surviving the black plague. He writes, “It became the custom to attribute the “Black Death” to the Jews, the “wizards,” the “devils,” who had survived the epidemic in inexplicably greater numbers than their neighbors…” He goes on to say that this could have been possible because of Judaic hygiene regulations. Although at first the Jews prospered in central Europe, they were soon treated almost as poorly as the people stolen from Africa for the slave trade. They moved east and settled in Poland where they lived freely for several centuries. They grew and became one of the largest Jewish settlements in Europe before “class tensions became seriously inflamed.”
Katz takes a different turn in his essay. He describes the differences between conservative and modern societies, more specifically Jewish society and culture. He explains how people can be judged and seen differently when practicing a conservative lifestyle. Just like in the Jewish ghettos of Europe, the Jews were different than their Christian neighbors and treated poorly because of this. Katz states, “Rather than founding their existence and aspirations on values and on knowledge yet to be discovered and developed, people in traditional societies assume that all the practical and theoretical knowledge that they require has been inherited by them from their forefathers, and that it is man’s duty to act in accordance with the ancient customs.” This is why many of the Jews did not want to reform to the modern lifestyle of other Europeans. In Sachar’s reading, he compares the treatment of the Jews to African slaves, the only difference being that Jews were not new to the land nor were they slaves. They had ancestors and family history that reached back generations all over Europe.
Katz’s view on traditional Jews is that religion was everything. There was no other law or high power besides religion. This is what separated the Jews from the Europeans in Sachar’s reading. The Jews had originally requested to live in a ghetto away from the Christians, to live and practice in a traditional Jewish matter, causing isolation and not really fitting in with other Europeans. The Jewish neighborhoods were set up like small communities, Jews ran all businesses and they had their own government and economy. This separation from the rest of the world made them an easy target by the European governments. They were unable to make the switch from traditional to modern Jews as Katz describes in his writing. He means to justify this transition in a legitimate way. The Jews thus suffered because of this and later fled to Poland.
Katz takes a different turn in his essay. He describes the differences between conservative and modern societies, more specifically Jewish society and culture. He explains how people can be judged and seen differently when practicing a conservative lifestyle. Just like in the Jewish ghettos of Europe, the Jews were different than their Christian neighbors and treated poorly because of this. Katz states, “Rather than founding their existence and aspirations on values and on knowledge yet to be discovered and developed, people in traditional societies assume that all the practical and theoretical knowledge that they require has been inherited by them from their forefathers, and that it is man’s duty to act in accordance with the ancient customs.” This is why many of the Jews did not want to reform to the modern lifestyle of other Europeans. In Sachar’s reading, he compares the treatment of the Jews to African slaves, the only difference being that Jews were not new to the land nor were they slaves. They had ancestors and family history that reached back generations all over Europe.
Katz’s view on traditional Jews is that religion was everything. There was no other law or high power besides religion. This is what separated the Jews from the Europeans in Sachar’s reading. The Jews had originally requested to live in a ghetto away from the Christians, to live and practice in a traditional Jewish matter, causing isolation and not really fitting in with other Europeans. The Jewish neighborhoods were set up like small communities, Jews ran all businesses and they had their own government and economy. This separation from the rest of the world made them an easy target by the European governments. They were unable to make the switch from traditional to modern Jews as Katz describes in his writing. He means to justify this transition in a legitimate way. The Jews thus suffered because of this and later fled to Poland.
Sunday, September 7, 2008
Salonica
Why, according to Mazower, was the Ottoman Empire so hospitable to the Sephardic Jews fleeing Spain? What role did these Jews play in the struggle between the Ottomans and the Hapsburg Empire (also known as the Holy Roman Empire)?
The Jews were welcomed because they were skilled workers and had a lot to offer to the Ottoman communities. They were not a threat because the Balkans were still overwhelmingly Christian as the Asian and Arab areas were Muslim. The Jews were not in great numbers, plus they helped to “revitalize urban life after many decades of war” in the Ottoman Empire. The Jews played a large role in the struggle between the Ottomans and the Holy Roman Empire because of the way the Roman Empire treated them. As anti-Semitism rose among the Roman Empire, the Ottoman’s used it against them, proving their hatred as they accepted Jews into their society with open arms.
How did Salonica grow into a majority Jewish city?
Istanbul’s population had been growing at an incredible rate due to a large immigration of Muslims, Greeks, and Armenians, leaving Salonica for the Jews to prosper in.
What kind of Jewish culture did the Sephardim create there?
The Jewish culture in Salonica was very similar to that of their culture in Spain. They brought their Spanish cuisine as well as language along with them. Even after being expelled from the Spanish empire they were very proud of their recently lost roots and practiced them well.
What role did the Jews of Salonica play in the Ottoman economy? What kind of occupations and trades did they enter?
The Jews began to produce Military uniforms for the Ottomans. After the success of this venture, the Jews began producing all sorts of clothes and cloth and became one of the largest and most successful exporters of clothing. Wealthy Jewish merchants bought local supplies of wool and other materials in order to supply poorer Jews with jobs and supplies. Jews also became miners and Salonica became one of the largest silver producers in the empire. However, the Jews worked mostly as miners and workers, leaving poor banking capabilities for the wealthy which was not good business for the banks as it included only Jews and left out the rest of the economy.
What social and religious conflicts arose between the Sephardic newcomers and members of the older Jewish communities – the Romaniotes and the Ashkenazim?
The members of the older Jewish communities did not approve of the Spanish culture that was prominent among the Sephardic newcomers. They spoke differently, practiced differently, and did business differently. They Jews clearly knew they had to get along with each other as the Sephardics were not leaving. The high Rabbis stressed that the Ottoman Jewish community should welcome the Sephardics and follow their example as prosperous, community oriented Jews.
How did the Jewish community in Salonica organize itself? (or was it organized?)
The Jewish community was rather quiet. Although there were 25 synagogues built in less than 20 years, they were kept hidden and the Jews were all reminded to stay quiet and low-key during prayer. They lived in the same area, in small, modest homes. They made sure that they didn’t take away from the glamour of the native Ottoman’s, even though their presence was great.
What role was played by the rabbis in the Salonica Jewish community?
Mehmed the Conqueror appointed a chief rabbi who was responsible for collecting taxes, administering justice, and ecclesiastical affairs. It was custom among the Ottomans to have a leader of every group in the empire. For the Jews, the hierarchy was the rabbis. It was their job to be the community leaders as well as the religious leaders.
The Jews were welcomed because they were skilled workers and had a lot to offer to the Ottoman communities. They were not a threat because the Balkans were still overwhelmingly Christian as the Asian and Arab areas were Muslim. The Jews were not in great numbers, plus they helped to “revitalize urban life after many decades of war” in the Ottoman Empire. The Jews played a large role in the struggle between the Ottomans and the Holy Roman Empire because of the way the Roman Empire treated them. As anti-Semitism rose among the Roman Empire, the Ottoman’s used it against them, proving their hatred as they accepted Jews into their society with open arms.
How did Salonica grow into a majority Jewish city?
Istanbul’s population had been growing at an incredible rate due to a large immigration of Muslims, Greeks, and Armenians, leaving Salonica for the Jews to prosper in.
What kind of Jewish culture did the Sephardim create there?
The Jewish culture in Salonica was very similar to that of their culture in Spain. They brought their Spanish cuisine as well as language along with them. Even after being expelled from the Spanish empire they were very proud of their recently lost roots and practiced them well.
What role did the Jews of Salonica play in the Ottoman economy? What kind of occupations and trades did they enter?
The Jews began to produce Military uniforms for the Ottomans. After the success of this venture, the Jews began producing all sorts of clothes and cloth and became one of the largest and most successful exporters of clothing. Wealthy Jewish merchants bought local supplies of wool and other materials in order to supply poorer Jews with jobs and supplies. Jews also became miners and Salonica became one of the largest silver producers in the empire. However, the Jews worked mostly as miners and workers, leaving poor banking capabilities for the wealthy which was not good business for the banks as it included only Jews and left out the rest of the economy.
What social and religious conflicts arose between the Sephardic newcomers and members of the older Jewish communities – the Romaniotes and the Ashkenazim?
The members of the older Jewish communities did not approve of the Spanish culture that was prominent among the Sephardic newcomers. They spoke differently, practiced differently, and did business differently. They Jews clearly knew they had to get along with each other as the Sephardics were not leaving. The high Rabbis stressed that the Ottoman Jewish community should welcome the Sephardics and follow their example as prosperous, community oriented Jews.
How did the Jewish community in Salonica organize itself? (or was it organized?)
The Jewish community was rather quiet. Although there were 25 synagogues built in less than 20 years, they were kept hidden and the Jews were all reminded to stay quiet and low-key during prayer. They lived in the same area, in small, modest homes. They made sure that they didn’t take away from the glamour of the native Ottoman’s, even though their presence was great.
What role was played by the rabbis in the Salonica Jewish community?
Mehmed the Conqueror appointed a chief rabbi who was responsible for collecting taxes, administering justice, and ecclesiastical affairs. It was custom among the Ottomans to have a leader of every group in the empire. For the Jews, the hierarchy was the rabbis. It was their job to be the community leaders as well as the religious leaders.
Tuesday, September 2, 2008
Pre-Modern Sephardism
Who are the Sephardim and where do they come from?
Jews of Spain or of Spanish descent.
In this article, Cohen is making a rather subtle argument about the relative situation of Jews under Muslim and Christian rule in the Middle Ages, and is arguing against two views that he considers incorrect. On the one hand, he is arguing against the “lachrymose conception” of Jewish history found among 19th century Jewish historians, who saw Jewish history as merely a trail of tears. On the other hand, he is arguing against a romanticized vision of Jewish history in Muslim Spain fostered by those same historians. How does Cohen argue that Jewish history under Muslim rule should be seen in a more balanced, realistic light?
Cohen argues that Christians were very confrontational towards the Torah and treated the Jews poorly as they were the alleged killers of Jesus Christ. The Muslims, on the other hand, saw both Jews and Christians as people of the book, whom they had ancient connections to, and would not treat poorly. This is rather ironic considering the stance between Jews and Arabs in today’s world.
According to Cohen, why was Jewish life under Muslim rule generally easier than under Christian rule?
The Muslims were not hung up on converting Jews to Islam as the Christians were on converting everybody to the teachings of Jesus, thus the Muslims were less confrontational towards the Middle-Eastern Jews. This allowed an easier life for these Jews because they did not live in fear of persecution from Muslims as the Ashkenazi Jews of Europe did from Christians.
What was the legal status of Jews living under Muslim rule?
The Christians turned the Jews into “serfs of the royal chamber,” as they became property of the monarchy. They had an oppressive legal status in which they were treated poorly, receiving much hostility from Christians, and were given limited freedom and heavy taxes as punishment for not converting.
In Muslim countries, Jews and Christians alike had no legal status. They were both under the protection of the Muslims leaders as long as they paid an annual poll tax.
What were the differences in the economic roles of Jews in Muslim and Christian lands in the Middle Ages?
The Jews were traditionally very predominant in the economic world. Although disliked for this trait, they were rather successful. They were often known as long-distance merchants who would travel to other lands to trade goods. Later, Jews started lending money out to Christians who were donating large amounts of their money to the Church. “People resented Jewish power over their economic well-being.” Jews in Muslim countries were heavily integrated into the Muslim economic system. Muslims were too keen on becoming a prosperous people economically and their hate for Jewish businesses increased their desire to compete in the market.
What led to the downfall of Jews in Christian Spain?
The Spanish Kabbalah appeared among the Sephardic Jews in Christian Spain which re-booted the Sephardic Jews into a newly ruled land. No longer controlled by the Muslims, the Sephardic Jews rebuilt their religious practice in Spain. Their new way of life sparked intense religious debates between the Jews and Christians of Spain. Christian anti-Semitism grew quickly throughout Spain in the fourteenth century.
Where did the Spanish Jews go after the expulsion? Why did the Ottomans welcome them in?
Most of the Jews went to Muslim countries as most European countries under Christian rule were uninviting. They fled to Morocco and Algeria, Egypt, Palestine and Syria. They received mixed reactions upon entering these territories however they were successful in the Muslim Ottoman Empire in Anatolia, Turkey, and the Balkans. They were accepted because the Ottomans and the Sephardics had a common enemy, the Habsburg Empire. The Ottomans were happy to have the prosperous Jews of Spain with them to help. After the success of the Jewish settlement in the Ottoman Empire, many of the Marranos from Spain fled to join the other Jews Turkey and the Balkans.
Jews of Spain or of Spanish descent.
In this article, Cohen is making a rather subtle argument about the relative situation of Jews under Muslim and Christian rule in the Middle Ages, and is arguing against two views that he considers incorrect. On the one hand, he is arguing against the “lachrymose conception” of Jewish history found among 19th century Jewish historians, who saw Jewish history as merely a trail of tears. On the other hand, he is arguing against a romanticized vision of Jewish history in Muslim Spain fostered by those same historians. How does Cohen argue that Jewish history under Muslim rule should be seen in a more balanced, realistic light?
Cohen argues that Christians were very confrontational towards the Torah and treated the Jews poorly as they were the alleged killers of Jesus Christ. The Muslims, on the other hand, saw both Jews and Christians as people of the book, whom they had ancient connections to, and would not treat poorly. This is rather ironic considering the stance between Jews and Arabs in today’s world.
According to Cohen, why was Jewish life under Muslim rule generally easier than under Christian rule?
The Muslims were not hung up on converting Jews to Islam as the Christians were on converting everybody to the teachings of Jesus, thus the Muslims were less confrontational towards the Middle-Eastern Jews. This allowed an easier life for these Jews because they did not live in fear of persecution from Muslims as the Ashkenazi Jews of Europe did from Christians.
What was the legal status of Jews living under Muslim rule?
The Christians turned the Jews into “serfs of the royal chamber,” as they became property of the monarchy. They had an oppressive legal status in which they were treated poorly, receiving much hostility from Christians, and were given limited freedom and heavy taxes as punishment for not converting.
In Muslim countries, Jews and Christians alike had no legal status. They were both under the protection of the Muslims leaders as long as they paid an annual poll tax.
What were the differences in the economic roles of Jews in Muslim and Christian lands in the Middle Ages?
The Jews were traditionally very predominant in the economic world. Although disliked for this trait, they were rather successful. They were often known as long-distance merchants who would travel to other lands to trade goods. Later, Jews started lending money out to Christians who were donating large amounts of their money to the Church. “People resented Jewish power over their economic well-being.” Jews in Muslim countries were heavily integrated into the Muslim economic system. Muslims were too keen on becoming a prosperous people economically and their hate for Jewish businesses increased their desire to compete in the market.
What led to the downfall of Jews in Christian Spain?
The Spanish Kabbalah appeared among the Sephardic Jews in Christian Spain which re-booted the Sephardic Jews into a newly ruled land. No longer controlled by the Muslims, the Sephardic Jews rebuilt their religious practice in Spain. Their new way of life sparked intense religious debates between the Jews and Christians of Spain. Christian anti-Semitism grew quickly throughout Spain in the fourteenth century.
Where did the Spanish Jews go after the expulsion? Why did the Ottomans welcome them in?
Most of the Jews went to Muslim countries as most European countries under Christian rule were uninviting. They fled to Morocco and Algeria, Egypt, Palestine and Syria. They received mixed reactions upon entering these territories however they were successful in the Muslim Ottoman Empire in Anatolia, Turkey, and the Balkans. They were accepted because the Ottomans and the Sephardics had a common enemy, the Habsburg Empire. The Ottomans were happy to have the prosperous Jews of Spain with them to help. After the success of the Jewish settlement in the Ottoman Empire, many of the Marranos from Spain fled to join the other Jews Turkey and the Balkans.
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